Research Status and Development Directions of Durability of Alkali-activated Concrete
ZHANG Yichao1, XIE Xinyang1, SUN Li1, FANG Yanfeng2,*, WU Fengyuan1
1 School of Civil Engineering, Shenyang Jianzhu University, Shenyang 110168, China 2 School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenyang Jianzhu University, Shenyang 110168, China
Abstract: Alkali-activated concrete is a key material for solid waste resource utilization and low-carbon development in the construction industry, with its durability being central to its engineering application. This paper systematically reviews the influence mechanisms of precursors, alkali activators, admixtures, and recycled aggregates on the freeze-thaw resistance, salt attack resistance, and carbonation resistance of alkali-activated concrete. The results indicate that the C-A-S-H gel in high-calcium systems provides early strength and a dense structure, while the N-A-S-H gel in low-calcium systems offers excellent chemical stability, with their combination yielding synergistic effects. Activators must be precisely matched with the precursor characteristics. Appropriate amounts of fibers and admixtures can significantly enhance durability. The regulation of the interfacial transition zone is key to achieving high performance in alkali-activated recycled concrete. Current research bottlenecks include an unclear understanding of durability degradation mechanisms under multi-factor coupling, a lack of quantitative correlation between microstructural evolution and macroscopic performance degradation, and the need to elucidate the "dual vulnerability" deterioration mechanism at the recycled aggregate-alkali-activated material interface. Future research should focus on developing multi-factor coupled test methods and life prediction models, and utilizing in-situ characterization techniques to reveal the micro-macro correlation, ultimately enabling the precise design and control of the durability of alkali-activated concrete in harsh environments.
1 Yü B T, Chen Y F, Li S Y, et al. Acta Materiae Compositae Sinica, 2022, 39(6), 2864 (in Chinese). 于本田, 陈延飞, 李双洋, 等. 复合材料学报, 2022, 39(6), 2864. 2 Mehta P K. Durability of Concrete-fifty Years of Progress, Special Publication, USA, 1991, pp. 1. 3 MEP, CAS. National ecological function zoning (revised edition), General Office of the Ministry of Environmental Protection, China, 2015, pp. 11 (in Chinese). 环境保护部, 中国科学院. 全国生态功能区划(修编版), 环境保护部办公厅, 2015, pp. 11. 4 Zhang Y C, Liang J T, Yu K K, et al. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2024, 43(11), 3923 (in Chinese). 张逸超, 梁佳彤, 虞凯凯, 等. 硅酸盐通报, 2024, 43(11), 3923. 5 Xiao Q H, Qi X, Li L L, et al. Concrete, 2024, 2024(8), 32 (in Chinese). 肖前慧, 齐晓, 李蕾蕾, 等. 混凝土, 2024, 2024(8), 32. 6 Powers T C. Journal of the American Concrete Institute, 1945, 16(4), 245. 7 Powers T C, Helmuth R A. Highway Research Board Proceedings, 1953, 32, 285. 8 Xie Y C, Weng X Z, Zhang J, et al. Journal of Highway and Transportation Research and Development, 2017, 34(4), 25 (in Chinese). 谢宇晨, 翁兴中, 张俊, 等. 公路交通科技, 2017, 34(4), 25. 9 Su X P, Wang Q, Wang W H, et al. Journal of Jilin University (Earth Science Edition), 2014, 44(4), 1244 (in Chinese). 宿晓萍, 王清, 王文华, 等. 吉林大学学报(地球科学版), 2014, 44(4), 1244. 10 Yang Q B, Huang S Y. Recommendations for durability design of concrete structures against freeze-thaw cycles and salt frost scaling, Durability design and construction of concrete structures:proceedings of the technical forum on safety and durability of civil engineering structures, China, 2001, pp. 131 (in Chinese). 杨全兵, 黄士元. 对混凝土结构抗冻融及盐冻侵蚀耐久性设计的建议, 混凝土结构耐久性设计与施工——土建结构工程安全性与耐久性科技论坛论文集, 2001, pp. 131. 11 Zhang Y Q, Yü H F, Sun W, et al. Journal of Building Materials, 2012, 15(5), 665 (in Chinese). 张云清, 余红发, 孙伟, 等. 建筑材料学报, 2012, 15(5), 665. 12 Yang Q B. Journal of Building Materials, 2012, 15(6), 741 (in Chinese). 杨全兵. 建筑材料学报, 2012, 15(6), 741. 13 Zhu H L. Materials Protection, 2024, 57(5), 97 (in Chinese). 朱海良. 材料保护, 2024, 57(5), 97. 14 Su X P, Wang Q. Journal of Jilin University (Engineering and Technology Edition), 2015, 45(1), 112 (in Chinese). 宿晓萍, 王清. 吉林大学学报(工学版), 2015, 45(1), 112. 15 Tang Z X, Yang S Y, Gao H H, et al. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2024, 43(2), 428 (in Chinese). 唐子祥, 杨淑雁, 高海海, 等. 硅酸盐通报, 2024, 43(2), 428. 16 Zhou F, Jiang Z N. Journal of Shenyang Jianzhu University (Natural Science), 2024, 40(4), 597 (in Chinese). 周芬, 蒋正男. 沈阳建筑大学学报(自然科学版), 2024, 40(4), 597. 17 Davidovits J. Geopolymer chemistry and applications, Defense Industry Press, China, 2011, pp. 12. 18 Palomo A, Kryvenko P, García-Lodeiro I, et al. Materiales De Construcción, 2014, 64(315), 140. 19 Zhang J, Shi C J, Zhang Z H, et al. Construction and Building Materials, 2017, 152, 598. 20 Li X, Rao F, Song S X, et al. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, 2019, 8(3), 2747. 21 Provis J L. Materials and Structures, 2014, 47, 11. 22 Davidovits J. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 1991, 37(8), 1633. 23 Zhang D W, Wang A H. Journal of Architecture and Civil Engineering, 2020, 37(5), 13 (in Chinese). 章定文, 王安辉. 建筑科学与工程学报, 2020, 37(5), 13. 24 Shao S Q, Gong A M, Qu B L, et al. Journal of Hydroelectric Engineering, 2024, 43(5), 115 (in Chinese). 邵善庆, 龚爱民, 屈宝莉, 等. 水力发电学报, 2024, 43(5), 115. 25 Garcia-Lodeiro I, Palomo A, Fernández-Jiménez A. Handbook of Alkali-Activated Cements, Mortars and Concretes, 2015, 2015, 49. 26 Wang A G, Zheng Y, Zhang Z H, et al. Engineering, 2020, 6, 695. 27 Zheng W Z, Zou M N, Wang Y. Journal of Building Structures, 2019, 40(1), 28 (in Chinese). 郑文忠, 邹梦娜, 王英. 建筑结构学报, 2019, 40(1), 28. 28 Shi C J, Roy D, Krivenko P. Alkali-activated cements and concretes, Crc Press, UK, 2003, pp. 219. 29 Ding Z Y, Zhou J H, Su Q, et al. Journal of Shenyang Jianzhu University (Natural Science), 2021, 37(1), 138 (in Chinese). 丁兆洋, 周静海, 苏群, 等. 沈阳建筑大学学报(自然科学版), 2021, 37(1), 138. 30 Le H B, Bui Q B, Tang L P. Materials, 2021, 14(5), 1180. 31 Hu J A, Jiang G L, Li B, et al. Journal of Shenyang Jianzhu University (Natural Science), 2025, 41(1), 47 (in Chinese). 胡军安, 蒋国龙, 李彪, 等. 沈阳建筑大学学报(自然科学版), 2025, 41(1), 47. 32 Peng H, Zhang B. Journal of Changsha University of Science and Technology (Natural Science), 2023, 20(5), 1 (in Chinese). 彭晖, 张白. 长沙理工大学学报(自然科学版), 2023, 20(5), 1. 33 Liu J J, Luo H P, Lei H Y, et al. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2023, 42(2), 565 (in Chinese). 刘景锦, 罗昊鹏, 雷华阳, 等. 硅酸盐通报, 2023, 42(2), 565. 34 Atiş C D, Bilim C, Çelik Ö, et al. Construction and Building Materials, 2009, 23(1), 548. 35 ivica V. Construction and Building Materials, 2007, 21(7), 1463. 36 Yang N R. Journal of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 1996, 24(2), 209 (in Chinese). 杨南如. 硅酸盐学报, 1996, 24(2), 209. 37 Han X M, Han P J, Ma F L. Metal Mine, 2024, 53(7), 276 (in Chinese). 韩向明, 韩鹏举, 马富丽. 金属矿山, 2024, 53(7), 276. 38 Guo Z J, Li W K. Journal of China and Foreign Highway, 2022, 42(5), 216 (in Chinese). 郭志坚, 李文凯. 中外公路, 2022, 42(5), 216. 39 Zhao R D, Yuan Y, Cheng Z Q, et al. Construction and Building Materials, 2019, 222, 474. 40 Bakharev T, Sanjayan J G, Cheng Y B. Cement and Concrete Research, 2001, 31(9), 1277. 41 Nedeljković M, Ghiassi B, Van-Der-Laan S, et al. Cement and Concrete Research, 2019, 116, 146. 42 Huang J L, Hou J, Zheng P Q, et al. Materials Reports, 2024, 38(13), 23010034-1(in Chinese). 黄京立, 侯杰, 郑沛祺, 等. 材料导报, 2024, 38(13), 23010034-1. 43 Nath P, Sarker P. Procedia Engineering, 2011, 14, 1149. 44 Roy D M, Arjunan P, Silsbee M R. Cement and Concrete Research, 2001, 31(12), 1809. 45 Lammertijn S, De-Belie N. Magazine of Concrete Research, 2008, 60(7), 535. 46 He S, Xia X, Qin Z D, et al. Advanced Engineering Sciences, 2024, 56(3), 277 (in Chinese). 贺盛, 夏鑫, 覃志笛, 等. 工程科学与技术, 2024, 56(3), 277. 47 Bernal S A, Provis J L, Walkley B, et al. Cement and Concrete Research, 2013, 53, 127. 48 Sun P J, Wu H C. Fuel, 2013, 111, 740. 49 Chen L L, Chen X, Li J X, et al. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2025, 44(10), 92 (in Chinese). 陈林露, 陈昕, 李家旭, 等. 硅酸盐通报, 2025, 44(10), 92. 50 Bi G Z, Wang B X, Guo J H, et al. Acta Materiae Compositae Sinica, 2025, 42(11), 6515 (in Chinese). 毕广泽, 王伯昕, 郭嘉欢, 等. 复合材料学报, 2025, 42(11), 6515. 51 Liu Y X, Lu J Z, Tian F X, et al. Industrial Construction, 2020, 50(4), 76 (in Chinese). 刘玉霞, 逯静洲, 田飞翔, 等. 工业建筑, 2020, 50(4), 76. 52 Ning B, Liu M M, Wang W F. Multipurpose Utilization of Mineral Resources, 2022, 43(6), 49 (in Chinese). 宁波, 刘苗苗, 王文飞. 矿产综合利用, 2022, 43(6), 49. 53 Luo Z, Huang D W, Peng H. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2023, 42(8), 2830 (in Chinese). 罗哲, 黄敦文, 彭晖. 硅酸盐通报, 2023, 42(8), 2830. 54 Ma R. Research on preparation and performance of new type high performance lightweight aggregate concrete based on inorganic polymer cement. Ph. D. Thesis, Central South University, China, 2012 (in Chinese). 马骁. 基于无机聚合物水泥的新型高性能轻骨料混凝土的制备与性能研究.博士学位论文, 中南大学, 2012. 55 Gu S H, Huang D W, Yang Y W,et al. Journal of Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology (Natural Science Edition), 2022, 54(2), 191 (in Chinese). 谷上海, 黄敦文, 杨翼玮, 等. 西安建筑科技大学学报(自然科学版), 2022, 54(2), 191. 56 Guo T, Lyu X X, Zou S, et al. Concrete, 2017, 2017(10), 104 (in Chinese). 郭涛, 吕晓霞, 邹顺, 等. 混凝土, 2017, 2017(10), 104. 57 Slavik R, Bednarik V, Vondruska M, et al. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2008, 200(1-3), 265. 58 Liu J C, Hossain M U, Xuan D X, et al. Developments in the Built Environment, 2023, 15, 100197. 59 Zheng H, Liang Y N, Zhan J W, et al. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2021, 40(8), 2564 (in Chinese). 郑昊, 梁咏宁, 詹建伟, 等. 硅酸盐通报, 2021, 40(8), 2564. 60 Barragán-Ramírez R, González-Hernández A, Bautista-Ruiz J, et al. Materials, 2024, 17(12), 3001. 61 Lashkari S, Yazdipanah F, Shahri M, et al. SN Applied Sciences, 2021, 3(6), 618. 62 Lu Y, Li S X, Tian Y C, et al. Fly Ash Comprehensive Utilization, 2020, 34(6), 59 (in Chinese). 陆瑶, 李双喜, 田亚超, 等. 粉煤灰综合利用, 2020, 34(6), 59. 63 Wang X F, Zeng T X, Zhou H J. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2023, 42(3), 1008 (in Chinese). 王雪芳, 曾天鑫, 周豪杰. 硅酸盐通报, 2023, 42(3), 1008. 64 Temuujin J, Minjigmaa A, Davaabal B, et al. Ceramics International, 2014, 40(10), 16475. 65 Torres-Carrasco M, Tognonvi M, Tagnit-Hamou A, et al. ACI Materials Journal, 2015, 112(6), 791. 66 Fang M W, Wang D, Zhou F T, et al. Journal of Functional Materials, 2023, 54(11), 11170 (in Chinese). 方明伟, 王丹, 周枫桃, 等. 功能材料, 2023, 54(11), 11170. 67 Ding Z Y, Su Q, Li M Z, et al. Journal of Building Materials, 2023, 26(1), 61 (in Chinese). 丁兆洋, 苏群, 李明泽, 等. 建筑材料学报, 2023, 26(1), 61. 68 Xü Q, Li Q, Chen W, et al. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2018, 37(11), 3575 (in Chinese). 徐庆, 李秋, 陈伟, 等. 硅酸盐通报, 2018, 37(11), 3575. 69 Wang D B, Sun W W, Zhao J, et al. Metal Mine, 2025, 54(2), 278 (in Chinese). 王杜彬, 孙魏巍, 赵俊, 等. 金属矿山, 2025, 54(2), 278. 70 Cui Y F, Liu M H, Zhang Y C, et al. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2025, 44(5), 1689 (in Chinese). 崔祎菲, 刘梦华, 张益聪, 等. 硅酸盐通报, 2025, 44(5), 1689. 71 Chi M, Chen H, Weng T, et al. Materials Science Forum, 2017, 904, 157. 72 Bilek V, Sucharda O, Bujdos D. Sustainability, 2021, 13(2), 473. 73 Li H W, Fan J J, Sun H X, et al. The World of Building Materials, 2022, 43(6), 6 (in Chinese). 李华伟, 范家俊, 孙浩旭, 等. 建材世界, 2022, 43(6), 6. 74 Liu D K, Sun Q. Bulletin of the Chinese Ceramic Society, 2025, 44(3), 1057 (in Chinese). 刘德坤, 孙琦. 硅酸盐通报, 2025, 44(3), 1057. 75 Provis J L. Cement and Concrete Research, 2018, 114, 40. 76 Dung N T, Hooper T J N, Unluer C. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2021, 115, 103832. 77 Gong J F, Ren Y X. Journal of Lanzhou University of Technology, 2024, 50(2), 24 (in Chinese). 公晋芳, 任永祥. 兰州理工大学学报, 2024, 50(2), 24. 78 Jiang X, Ji T, Xü W, et al. New Building Materials, 2021, 48(4), 95 (in Chinese). 江旋, 季韬, 徐维, 等. 新型建筑材料, 2021, 48(4), 95. 79 Peng Z, Zhu D J, Shi C J, et al. Materials Reports, 2021, 35(16), 16058 (in Chinese). 彭卓, 朱德举, 史才军, 等. 材料导报, 2021, 35(16), 16058. 80 Luo J H, Gong A M, Shao S Q, et al. Water Power, 2024, 50(8), 94 (in Chinese). 罗加辉, 龚爱民, 邵善庆, 等. 水力发电, 2024, 50(8), 94. 81 Yuan Y, Zhao R D, Li R, et al. Construction and Building Materials, 2020, 250, 118831. 82 Liu Z T, Li Q Y, Wei H J, et al. Concrete, 2022, 2022(4), 163 (in Chinese). 刘振涛, 李秋义, 魏红俊, 等. 混凝土, 2022, 2022(4), 163. 83 Uğurlu Aİ, Karakoç M B, Özcan A. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 301, 124246. 84 Zhang B F, Feng Y, Xie J H, et al. Construction and Building Materials, 2021, 310, 125248. 85 Tang L, Zhang H E, Huang Q, et al. Journal of Sichuan University (Engineering Science Edition), 2015, 47(Supp. 1), 164 (in Chinese). 唐灵, 张红恩, 黄琪, 等. 四川大学学报(工程科学版), 2015, 47(增刊1), 164. 86 Chen B, Wang Y, Hua M Q. Journal of Harbin Engineering University, 2025, 46(4), 696 (in Chinese). 陈波, 王悦, 华敏琦. 哈尔滨工程大学学报, 2025, 46(4), 696. 87 Du C Z, Shang J X, Zhou D Y. Low Temperature Architecture Technology, 2025, 2025(323), 153 (in Chinese). 杜承泽, 尚佳欣, 周大永. 低温建筑技术, 2025, 2025(323), 153. 88 Zhang Y C, Ma Z C, Zhi X, et al. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2023, 138, 104980. 89 Chen X Y, Zhang Y C, Sun L, et al. The Journal of the Minerals, 2025, 77(6), 4135. 90 Pradhan P, Dwibedy S, Pradhan M, et al. Journal of Building Engineering, 2022, 59, 105100.